PLASMA BIOCHEMISTRY PROFILES OF WILD WESTERN TIGER SNAKES (NOTECHIS SCUTATUS OCCIDENTALIS) BEFORE AND AFTER SIX MONTHS OF CAPTIVITY.

Urban wildlife often suffer poorer health than their counterparts living in more pristine environments due to exposure to anthropogenic stressors such as habitat degradation and environmental contamination. As a result, the health of urban versus nonurban snakes might be assessed by differences in their plasma biochemistries. We compared the plasma profiles of western tiger snakes (Notechis scutatus occidentalis) from a heavily urbanized wetland and a natural, nonurbanized wetland. Despite the urbanized snakes having lower body mass index, we found no significant difference between the plasma profiles of the two populations. We collected snakes from each population and kept them in captivity for 6 mo, providing them with stable conditions, uncontaminated (exempt from heavy metals and pesticides) food and water, and lowered parasite intensity in an attempt to promote better health through depuration. After captivity, snakes experienced a significant improvement in body mass index and significant changes in their plasma profiles. Snakes from the natural wetland initially had more variation of DNA damage; mean concentration of DNA damage in all snakes slightly decreased, but not significantly, after captivity. We present the plasma biochemistry profiles from western tiger snakes both before and after captivity and suggest a period of removal from natural stressors via captivity may offer a more reliable result of how plasma profiles of healthy animals might appear.

Endoparasites infecting the semiaquatic coral snake Micrurus surinamensis (Squamata: Elapidae) in the southern Amazonian region, Mato Grosso state, Brazil.

A parasitological survey was conducted in specimens of the semiaquatic coral snake Micrurus surinamensis, a poorly known South American elapid. Four specimens collected at the southern Amazon region in the Brazilian state of Mato Grosso were analyzed for endoparasites. Three parasite species were recovered from the snake hosts: the pentastomid Sebekia oxycephala, the nematode Physaloptera sp. and the trematode Opisthogonimus lecithonotus. This represents new locality and host record for S. oxycephala and O. lecithonotus.

Revision of hemoproteid genera and description and redescription of two species of chelonian hemoproteid parasites.

Pigmented hemosporidian parasites that do not exhibit erthyrocytic schizogony, and infect birds, chelonians, and squamates, have been classified in various genera over time. These classifications have reflected vertebrate hosts, insect vectors, and variations in morphology and life history observed in representative species. Side-necked turtles ( Podocnemis spp.) from the Peruvian Amazon were screened for hemoparasites and 2 species of hemosporid parasites infecting these hosts were observed. Molecular phylogenetic analysis of these new isolates, along with parasites from lizards, a snake, and a variety of Haemoproteus species from birds from both the Haemoproteus and Parahaemoproteus subgenera, strongly support the separation of the non-avian parasites into a separate genus. The name with precedent for this group is Haemocystidium Castellani and Willey 1909, and we propose that subgeneric classification of Haemocystidium and Simondia be applied to parasites of squamates and chelonians, respectively. We offer a description of Haemocystidium (Simondia) pacayae n. sp. and a redescription of Haemocystidium (Simondia) peltocephali ( Lainson and Naiff 1998 , n. comb.) Morphologically, the parasites are quite similar, with H. pacayae slightly more elongated than H. peltocephali. The discovery and identification of parasite species is urgent, especially in endangered species and wildlife inhabiting rapidly declining ecosystems such as the Amazon.

Endoparasites infecting the semiaquatic coral snake Micrurus surinamensis (Squamata: Elapidae) in the southern amazonian region, Mato Grosso state, Brazil / Endoparasitas infectando a coral semiaquática Micrurus surinamensis (Squamata: Elapidae) no sul da Amazônia, Mato Grosso, Brasil

A parasitological survey was conducted in specimens of the semiaquatic coral snake Micrurus surinamensis, a poorly known South American elapid. Four specimens collected at the southern Amazon region in the Brazilian state of Mato Grosso were analyzed for endoparasites. Three parasite species were recovered from the snake hosts: the pentastomid Sebekia oxycephala, the nematode Physaloptera sp. and the trematode Opisthogonimus lecithonotus. This represents new locality and host record for S. oxycephala and O. lecithonotus.

Um estudo parasitológico foi conduzido em espécimes da cobra coral semiaquática Micrurus surinamensis, espécie de elapídeo sulamericano pouco conhecida. Quatro exemplares coletados na região sul da Amazônia, no norte do estado de Mato Grosso foram analisados quanto a presença de endoparasitas. Três espécies de parasitas foram encontradas: o pentastomídeo Sebekia oxycephala, o nematódeo Physaloptera sp. e o trematódeo Opisthogonimus lecithonotus. Isso representa novo registro de localidade e hospedeiro para S. oxycephala e O. lecithonotus.

Marine snake epibiosis: a review and first report of decapods associated with Pelamis platurus.

Under circumstances in which area for settlement is limited, the colonization of living substrata may become a highly valuable strategy for survival of marine invertebrates. This phenomenon, termed epibiosis, results in spatially close associations between two or more living organisms. Pelamis platurus, the yellow-bellied sea snake, is the only exclusively pelagic marine snake and its propensity for foraging along ocean slicks facilitates its colonization by pelagic epibionts. Herein, we report epibionts associated with P. platurus inhabiting the waters off the northwestern Pacific coast of Costa Rica. These associations include the first records of decapod epibionts from any marine snake. Decapod epibionts were found on 18.9% of P. platurus, and size of snake (total length) had a significant positive effect on the frequency and intensity of epibiosis. We discuss the spatial and ecological mechanisms that facilitate these interactions, as well as the suite of factors that either promote or deter epibiosis and ultimately dictate the frequency and intensity of these interactions. Finally, we provide a review of marine snake epibiosis. The intention of this review is to (1) provide contemporary researchers with a single, accessible reference to all known reports of epibionts associated with marine snakes and (2) discuss what is currently known with respect to diversity of epibionts from marine snakes.

A massive infestation of sea snakes by cymothoid isopods.

In this study, a massive infestation of the sea snake Enhydrina schistosa by the cymothoid isopod Nerocila serra, commonly parasitizing fishes, is reported for the first time from India. This isopod was found attached on the different parts of the body of the snake. According to the month, the parasitic prevalence ranged from 30.8 to 55.3%, increasing during the monsson period. It was higher in female than in male snakes.

New host and locality records of snake intestinal nematode Kalicephalus spp in Indonesia.

OBJECTIVE: To observe three species of Kalicephalus found in three species of snake (Ophiophagus hannah, Ptyas mucosus, and Naja Sputatrix) during research on Capture Snake for Trading in Java and Snake Biodiversity in Kalimantan Islands. METHODS: Specimens for light microscopy examination were fixed with warm 70% alcohol, cleared and mounted in lactophenol for wet mounting. Drawings were made with the aid of a drawing tube attached to a Nikon compound microscope. Measurements were given in micrometers (µ) as the average of findings, followed by the range in parentheses, unless otherwise stated. RESULTS: Kalicephalus (Costatus) indicus was found from 7 Ptyas mucosus, Kalicephalus bungari from 2 Naja sputatrix and 1 Kalicephalus (Costatus) indicus and Kalicephalus assimilis found from 1 Ophiophagus hannah. The morphology and measurement of three species of Kalicephalus found in this study were close to those described before. CONCLUSIONS: New finding of host of Kalicephalus (Costatus) indicus and Kalicephalus bungari was a snake species of Naja sputatrix. New records of locality were Kalimantan island as the new locality of Kalicephalus assimilis, and Java island was new locality of Kalicephalus (Costatus) indicus.

Prevalence and intensity of pentastomid infection in two species of snakes from northeastern Brazil

This study aimed to evaluate the infection rates of snakes by pentastomids in the semi-arid region of Brazil. Fifteen snakes (four Micrurus ibiboboca (Merrem, 1820) and eleven Philodryas nattereri Steindachner, 1870) were collected between January and April of 2005, in the municipality of Crato (07° 14' S and 39° 24' W), State of Ceará, Brazil. Laboratorial analysis of the respiratory tracts of the sampled snakes indicated differences in host infection rates: four individuals of P. nattereri (36.4 percent) were infected by Cephalobaena tetrapoda Heymons, 1922 (mean infection intensity 1.5 ± 0.28, 1-2) and three specimens (27.3 percent) by Raillietiella furcocerca (Diesing, 1863) (2.3 ± 1.32, 1-5). Only one individual of M. ibiboboca (25 percent) was infected by a non-identified species of Raillietiella sp. These are the first data on pentastomid infection in snakes in Northeastern Brazil and both snake species comprise new host records for the pentastomids. The results also indicate that the generalist parasites C. tetrapoda and R. furcocerca share their definitive hosts.

Este artigo visou compreender as taxas de infecção por pentastomídeos em serpentes na região do semi-árido brasileiro. Quinze serpentes (quatro Micrurus ibiboboca (Merrem, 1820) e onze Philodryas nattereri Steindachner, 1870) foram coletadas entre os meses de janeiro e abril de 2005, no município do Crato (07° 14' S and 39° 24' W), Estado do Ceará. A análise laboratorial do trato respiratório das serpentes amostradas indicou diferenças nas taxas de infecção: quatro indivíduos de P. nattereri (36.4 por cento) estavam infectados por Cephalobaena tetrapoda Heymons, 1922 (intensidade de infecção média de 1.5 ± 0.28, 1-2) e três (27.3 por cento) por Raillietiella furcocerca (Diesing, 1863) (2.3 ± 1.32, 1-5). Apenas um indivíduo de M. ibiboboca (25 por cento) estava infectado por uma espécie não identificada de Raillietiella sp. Essas informações constituem os primeiros dados sobre infecção por pentastomídeos em serpentes para a região do nordeste brasileiro e ambas as espécies de serpentes constituem novos hospedeiros para os pentastomídeos identificados. Os resultados também indicam que os parasitas generalistas C. tetrapoda e R. furcocerca compartilham seus hospedeiros definitivos.

Redescription of Haemoproteus mesnili (Apicomplexa: Plasmodiidae) and its meronts, with description of a second haemosporidian parasite of African cobras.

Haemoproteus mesnili (Bouet 1909) Wenyon 1926 is redescribed from the spitting cobra, Naja nigricollis nigricollis, of Tanzania. Mature gametocytes in the acute phase of infection averaged 17.7 X 7.3 jim, with LW 128.1 jim-, and L:W ratio 2.52. Nuclei were visible in both sexes. Both sexes were heavily pigmented, with 31-62 black granules dispersed in macrogametocytes; 20-46 granules were often clumped or concentrated near ends of microgametocytes. The halteridial form was present in 28% of active-phase gametocytes, but in only 8% of those in chronic phase. A few large, possibly first generation, meronts were present in cardiac muscle; uninucleate parasites within parasitophorous vacuoles in splenic cells produced small rounded or ovoid meronts, 12.2 x 9.6 microm, with 12-16 deeply basophilic, square-to-rectangular cytomeres. Meronts with 17-32 cytomeres were 16.9 x 11.9 microm. Meronts, 20 x 16 to 26 x 22 microm, contained 51-57 cytomeres. Mature meronts were ovoid, 13.7 x 11.5 microm, with many rounded merozoites. Haemoproteus balli n. sp, found in an Egyptian cobra, Naja haje haje of Kenya, differs from H. mesnili in average gametocyte dimensions, 10.8 x 7.7 microm; LW, 83.2 microm2; L/W ratio, 1.42; absence of halteridial forms; sparse pigmentation (3-10 granules); and presence of a broad peripheral band, apparently chromatin, along one side of microgametocytes.

Prevalence and intensity of pentastomid infection in two species of snakes from northeastern Brazil.

This study aimed to evaluate the infection rates of snakes by pentastomids in the semi-arid region of Brazil. Fifteen snakes (four Micrurus ibiboboca (Merrem, 1820) and eleven Philodryas nattereri Steindachner, 1870) were collected between January and April of 2005, in the municipality of Crato (07 degrees 14' S and 39 degrees 24' W), State of Ceará, Brazil. Laboratorial analysis of the respiratory tracts of the sampled snakes indicated differences in host infection rates: four individuals of P. nattereri (36.4%) were infected by Cephalobaena tetrapoda Heymons, 1922 (mean infection intensity 1.5 +/- 0.28, 1-2) and three specimens (27.3%) by Raillietiella furcocerca (Diesing, 1863) (2.3 +/- 1.32, 1-5). Only one individual of M. ibiboboca (25%) was infected by a non-identified species of Raillietiella sp. These are the first data on pentastomid infection in snakes in Northeastern Brazil and both snake species comprise new host records for the pentastomids. The results also indicate that the generalist parasites C. tetrapoda and R. furcocerca share their definitive hosts.

A review of endoparasitic acarines of Malaysia with special reference to novel endoparasitism of mites in amphibious sea snakes and supplementary notes on ecology of chiggers.

Some 2,000 species of mites of the family Trombiculidae are known in the world. The 6-legged larvae are mostly ectoparasites of reptiles, birds, mammals and invertebrates. Their 8-legged active nymphs and adults are free-living predators. In the Asia-Pacific region, a few species in various genera are vectors of scrub typhus and scrub-itch. In this a paper, a very bizarre trombiculid species, Vatacarus ipoides Southcott 1957, endoparasitic in the trachea of the amphibious sea snake, Laticauda colubrina (Schenider) is re-described based mostly on new-born larvae reared in the laboratory. Life history study of the mite produced very novel and interesting results. A brief account of the life-cycle was presented at the first laboratory demonstration of the Malaysian Society of Parasitology and Tropical Medicine Meeting by Nadchatram and Audy (1965). The life history is illustrated and described here in greater detail. The active nymphal, and the akinetic teleiophane stages are bypassed, which is unusual in the life-cycle of the family Trombiculidae. Also, the larva is the only stage in the life-cycle that feeds. The sexes are predetermined in the larval neosomatic stage and give rise to small males and bigger females. Having obtained adults of the species, by rearing, it is deemed unnecessary for the original proposal by Southcott to erect a new family, Vatacaridae, because the adults share all the attributes of the family Trombiculidae. The male and female obtained through laboratory rearing are illustrated for the first time. Relationship of V. ipoides with Laticauda snakes show close host-specificity, in a group of acarines that are generally habitat-specific. Possible explanations for their association are discussed. The unusual morphology and the formation of new structures during an instar is of ontogenetic and evolutionary importance. The hypertrophic larvae are superficially vermiform, rather than typically acarine in shape. This, and other biological features, necessitated the proposal of new morphological terms, and they are discussed here.

Hematology, morphology, cytochemical staining, and ultrastuctural characteristics of blood cells in king cobras (Ophiophagus hannah).

BACKGROUND: King cobras (Ophiophagus hannah) have been captive-bred at Queen Saovabha Memorial Institute since 1996 to supply venom for antivenom production. Hematologic tests would be useful for evaluating the health of the snakes, however, basic hematologic data and morphology have not been described for this species. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to determine basic hematologic values and evaluate light microscopic, cytochemical, and electron microscopic characteristics of king cobra blood cells. METHODS: Blood samples from 13 wild-caught and 15 captive-bred king cobras were collected into EDTA from the ventral caudal vein. A CBC was done using standard methods. Significant differences between groups were determined using t-tests. Cytochemical stains (periodic acid-Schiff [PAS], Sudan black B [SBB], alpha-naphthyl acetate esterase [ANAE], acid phosphatase [AcP], and beta-glucuronidase [beta-glu]), and scanning and transmission electron microscopy were done using standard techniques. RESULTS: Eighteen snakes (64.3%) were positive for Hepatozoon infection. Hepatozoon organisms were detected nearly twice as frequently in wild-caught (11/13) as in captive-bred (7/15) snakes. Total WBC, azurophil, and lymphocyte counts were higher and fibrinogen concentration was lower in Hepatozoon-positive snakes. Captive-bred snakes had higher RBC values, lower azurophil, heterophil, and punctate reticulocyte percentages, and higher lymphocyte numbers compared with wild-caught snakes. Lymphocytes were the most commonly observed WBCs, and stained positive with PAS, ANAE, AcP, and beta-glu. Azurophil granules stained positive with SBB, PAS, and ANAE. Heterophils were the largest WBCs; their granules stained with SBB, ANAE, and beta-glu. Basophil granules stained with PAS, SBB, ANAE, and beta-glu. Thrombocytes were strongly positive with PAS. Transmission electron microscopic examination revealed organelles within all WBCs except eosinophils and revealed the gamonts of Hepatozoon sp in RBCs and azurophils. CONCLUSIONS: These results provide comparative hematologic data and a guide for identification of blood cells in wild-caught and captive-bred king cobra snakes. Hepatozoon infection was relatively common, but was not associated with severe hematologic abnormalities.

Separation of calcareous corpuscles from plerocercoids of Spirometra mansoni and their binding proteins.

Calcareous corpuscles, known as mineral concretions in Platyhelminthes, may have special biological functions. In the present study we succeeded in the quantitative separation of calcareous corpuscles in plerocercoids of Spirometra mansoni (sparganum) using Ficoll. Purified calcareous corpuscles were reacted with crude extracts of Platyhelminthes, including sparganum. Proteins commonly binding to calcareous corpuscles were molecules of 10, 17, 22, and 35 kDa. A 95-kDa molecule was found to bind specifically in cystic fluid of Cysticercus cellulosae, as was a 40-kDa protein in crude extracts of Taenia saginata and a 27-kDa molecule in crude extracts of Paragonimus westermani and Clonorchis sinensis, respectively. This finding suggests that calcareous corpuscles might have a binding activity to proteins in crude extracts of sparganum.

Molecular analysis of the 18S rRNA gene of Cryptosporidium serpentis in a wild-caught corn snake (Elaphe guttata guttata) and a five-species restriction fragment length polymorphism- based assay that can additionally discern C. parvum from C. wrairi.

An adult wild-caught corn snake (Elaphe guttata guttata) was presented for humane euthanasia and necropsy because of severe cryptosporidiosis. The animal was lethargic and >5% dehydrated but in good flesh. Gastric lavage was performed prior to euthanasia. Histopathologic findings included gastric mucosal hypertrophy and a hemorrhagic erosive gastritis. Numerous 5- to 7-microm-diameter round extracellular organisms were associated with the mucosal hypertrophy. A PCR, acid-fast stains, Giemsa stains, and an enzyme immunoassay were all positive for Cryptosporidium spp. PCR and restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis on gastric lavage and gastric mucosal specimens, and subsequent sequencing of the 18S rRNA gene, enabled a distinct molecular characterization of the infecting organism as Cryptosporidium serpentis. Until recently, studies on snake Cryptosporidium have relied on host specificity and gross and histopathologic observations to identify the infecting species. A multiple alignment of our sequence against recently published sequences of the 18S rRNA gene of C. serpentis (GenBank accession no. AF093499, AF093500, and AF093501 [L. Xiao et al., unpublished data, 1998]) revealed 100% homology with the C. serpentis (Snake) sequence (AF093499) previously described by Xiao et al. An RFLP method to differentiate the five presently sequenced strains of Cryptosporidium at this locus was developed. This assay, which uses SpeI and SspI, complements a previously reported assay by additionally distinguishing the bovine strain of Cryptosporidium from Cryptosporidium wrairi.

The detection of Ochetosoma heterocoelium (Travassos, 1921) (Trematoda: Digenea: Ochetosomatidae) in Chironius exoletus (Linnaeus, 1758) Ophidia: Colubridae)

Two hundred and fifty-two specimens of Ochetosoma heterocoelium (Travassos, 1921) (Trematoda: Digenea: Ochetosomatidae) were detected in the mouth and esophagus of the snake Chironius exoletus (Linnaeus, 1758) (Ophidia: Colubridae) at the serpentarium of the Center for the Study of Venoms and Venomous Animals (CEVAP) of Säo Paulo State University (UNESP) in Botucatu, State of Säo Paulo, Brazil.

Sphaerechinorhynchus ophiograndis n. sp. (Acanthocephala:Plagiorhynchidae:Sphaerechinorhynchinae), described from the intestine of a king cobra, Ophiophagus hannah.

Six acanthocephalan specimens of an undescribed species of Sphaerechinorhynchus Johnston and Deland, 1929, were found attached to the mucosal surface of the proximal small intestine of a legally imported king cobra, Ophiophagus hannali (Cantor, 1836). These specimens are described as Sphaerechinorhynchus ophiograndis n. sp., the third species of the genus from snakes native to the Indo-Australian region, and the second species described from adults in the king cobra. Sphaerechinorhynchus ophiograndis n. sp. differs from Sphaerechinorhynchus serpenticola Schmidt and Kuntz, 1966 and Sphaerechinorhynchus rotun docapitus (Johnston, 1912) Johnston and Deland. 1929, by differences in proboscis and hook morphology, lemniscus length and appearance, testes presentation, number of cement glands, and, additionally from S. ronundocapitus, by overall trunk size and location of attachment within the host species.

Cryptosporidium parvum is not transmissible to fish, amphibians, or reptiles.

A recent report suggested that an isolate of Cryptosporidium parvum had established infections in fish, amphibians, and reptiles and raises concern that animals other than mammals might be a potential source of waterborne Cryptosporidium oocysts. To test this possibility, viable C. parvum oocysts, infectious for neonatal BALB/c mice, were delivered by gastric intubation to bluegill sunfish, poison-dart frogs, African clawed frogs, bearded dragon lizards, and corn snakes. Histological sections of the stomach, jejunum, ileum, and cloaca prepared from tissues collected on days 7 and 14 postinoculation (PI) were negative for Cryptosporidium developmental stages. However, inoculum-derived oocysts were detectable by fluorescein-labeled monoclonal antibody in feces of inoculated animals from day 1 to day 12 PI in fish and frogs, and up to day 14 PI in lizards. Snakes did not defecate for 14 days PI. Impression smears taken at necropsy on days 7 and 14 PI revealed C. parvum oocysts in the lumen of the cloaca of 2 fish and 1 lizard on day 7 PI only. Because tissue stages of the pathogen were not found, it appears that C. parvum was not heterologously transmitted to lower vertebrates. Under certain circumstances, however, such as after the ingestion of C. parvum-infected prey, lower vertebrates may disseminate C. parvum oocysts in the environment.

Pathology associated with physalopterid larvae (Nematoda: Spirurida) in the gastric tissues of Australian reptiles.

Cysts containing one or more physalopterid larvae were found commonly in the gastric tissues of snakes (Elapidae) and in all five families of lizards (Agamidae, Gekkonidae, Pygopodidae, Scincidae and Varanidae) in Western Australia. Snakes had been collected from many locations in tropical and arid Western Australia between 1912 and 1976, and lizards from the Great Victoria Desert between September 1978 and March 1979. Most cysts occurred in the submucosa; others were found within stomach muscle, and subserosally on the external stomach surface. Encysted and apparently viable larvae were associated with minimal host inflammatory response. Encysted dead and degenerating larvae occurred in cysts with inflammatory cell infiltrates, principally in snakes.

The fatty acids of each lipid fraction and their use in providing energy source of the plerocercoid of Spirometra erinacei.

The fatty acid concentration of each lipid fraction of plerocercoids of Spirometra erinacei and the host snake serum was investigated. The major fatty acids of phospholipid of the plerocercoids were C18:1, C18:0 and C16:0, and those of the host snake serum were C16:0, C18:1 and C18:0, in order of amount in both cases. The changes of the fatty acid composition of phospholipid of the plerocercoids when they were incubated in physiological saline at 18 degrees C and at 37 degrees C for 24 h were investigated in both cases. Polyunsaturated fatty acids increased at 18 degrees C, and saturated fatty acids increased at 37 degrees C. Michaelis constants (Km) of beta-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase (HAD), NADH: ubiquinone oxidoreductase (complex I) (NADH: ferricyanide reaction) and complex I (NADH: ubiquinone reaction) for NADH were 20.6, 50 and 13.3 microM, respectively. The ATP production in mitochondria of the plerocercoids was accelerated by adding ADP and inhibited by adding such electron transport system inhibitors as rotenone, antimycin A and sodium cyanide. These results suggested that the fatty acids in the plerocercoids played an important role in regulating the fluidity of membrane by changing the composition in membrane lipid corresponding with the change of temperature circumstance. The NADH reduced by HAD might be accepted by the complex I in the electron transport system, and thus the parasites were capable of ATP production in a classical pathway of the oxidative phosphorylation system.

Chronic cryptosporidiosis in Australian elapid snakes: control of an outbreak in a captive colony.

An outbreak of chronic cryptosporidiosis resulting in hypertrophic gastritis occurred in a captive colony of Australian elapid snakes. Two species of the genus Notechis were involved: Notechis ater (Black Tiger Snake) and Notechis scutatus (Eastern or Mainland Tiger Snake). The infection was eventually fatal in all 9 affected snakes. Typical histopathological findings of the stomach included mucosal thickening with cystic dilatation of gastric glands, moderate oedema and fibrosis of the lamina propria, and a mild to moderate patchy infiltration of inflammatory cells. Procedures implemented to contain the outbreak included the use of a formaldehyde-based disinfectant, prompt removal of faecal matter, uneaten and regurgitated food from enclosures, and examination of faecal specimens for Cryptosporidium oocytes and other pathogens.